Eastern and Western Thinkers on Education

MAHATMA GANDHI AND BASIC EDUCATION

Mahatma Gandhi was a great national leader, a practical philosopher and a socio-political reformer of the modern India. The Father of the Nation, as he is affectionately called, was the apostle of peace and non-violence, and champion of freedom movement. He devoted his whole life for this noble cause, and also incessantly .Worked for the upliftment of the millions of downtrodden, poverty-sticken, half-naked and semitstarved masses of India. The nation was freed from the foreign yoke and subjugation on 15th August, 1947. Establishment of castless society free from exploitation and communal discriminations was a passionate desire of Gandhiji, and he visualised an ideal society Sarvodaya Samaj, a Rama Rajr. For this ultimate aim he looked upon education as a potential means. Through education, he believed, ignorance, darkness and superstitions of education which he ably concretized was the result of his long experience of political, social and economic life of the country's independence he got Us, Was his scheme of education. Basic Education, was also known as Wardha Scheme.

A Brief Life-Sketch

Gandhiji was born on October, 2, 1869 at Porbander in Gujarat His father was the Prime Minister of the State of Porbandar and Rajkot. He had his education up to Matriculation in India. He was married at the age of 13 to Kasturibai, at 17 he was sent to England to study law. That was in September 1881. He stayed there for three years or so, On completing his course, in 1891, he was called to the bar.

On return back home, he set up practice in Rejkot. He had an opportunity to go to South Africa to help in a major law case. He remained there for a number of years; and his stay in Africa changed the course of his life. He decided to fight the case for Indian settlers in Africa and evolved the principles of 'truth and 'non-violence',

He returned to India and participated in the struggle for independence of the country. Joining the Indian National Congress, his life from 1919 to 1947 was a period of struggle, imprisonment, sacrifice and suffering and sathyagraha. He died on 30th January 1948 at the hands of the assassin Nathuram Godse, a mis-guided fanatic. Gandhiji's life and career was one of self-less sacrifice and constructive contribution, among others, on the educational front.

Gandhiji's General Philosophy

Gandhiji's philosophy, doctrine included belief in God, the three focal points Truth, Ahimsa and Love, brotherhood of man and service to humanity. A humanist to the core, Gandhiji believed that truth and ova would help befriend even enemies, Since God is truth, God is love too, He recommended non-violence, a positive attitude of tolerance, patience, perseverance, self-sacrifice and self-sufferings Ha called it 'Ahirrisa' which in practical application, is 'Satyagraha’ which is a method of security, a right by personal suffering and not by inflicting injury on others.

Educational Philosophy, Curriculum and Methods

To Gandhiji, education is a potent force for social reconstruction; moral, political, and economic development. It should be remembered that Basic-Education which we are discussing shortly, does not include the total philosophy of education as envisaged by Gandhiji, since Basic Education is concerned only with children between 6 and 14.

Being an idealist, pragmatist and a naturalist, he gives expert education to serve as a tool to bring out the best in the child and man, body-mind and soul. Literacy is not to be mistaken for education which is harmonious development of total personality intellectual, physical, spiritual, and other aspects. The ultimate aim or education, according to him is to strike a balance between individual development and social harmony, spiritual and material outlook, and physical and intellectual development. The relatively immediate aims of education are (i) to serve as a means to support one-self and one's family, (ii) preservation and enhancement of culture, (iii) character building, (iv) all-round development of the individual-training of the head, heart and hand, (v) cultivation of higher values of life.

Gandhiji advocated a curriculum including all relevant subjects, with emphasis on mother tongue : Crafts should be particularly arc medium of instruction, integral part, Crafts should be the medium of education, since he believed in 'learning by doing' and 'learning while earning', Through a balanced curriculum, he wanted to bring about a silent social revolution. The technique of correlation — relating education to the activity—is a remarkable characteristic of his scheme. His concept of discipline was based on self control and inner discipline. This concept was in tune with social discipline. He wanted teachers to be well-trained proficient, enthusiastic and devoted, and themselves with exemplary behaviour. He wanted free and compulsory primary education from seven to 14 for the whole Indian population signifying education up to Matriculation:

Basic Education (Wardha Scheme)

The main features of Gandhiji's Basic Education, known as Wardha Scheme are the following (i) free and compulsory education from six or seven to 14, (ii) a productive craft as the centre of education, (ill) self-supporting nature of education, (iv) mother tongue as medium of instruction, (v) promotion of the cult of non-violence, (vi) ideal of citizenship as would be facilitated through cooperative com-munity, and (vii) the ideal of a cooperative community which he expected his 'Basic School' to become. The greatest sheet-anchor of Basic Education is 'correlation', imparting of education through the medium of a productive activity. The crafts suggested were spinning, agriculture, woodwork, natural or physical environment of the child, and social environment of the child. These are to be the centres of correlation ; and the last two in the list were additions suggested by the Zakir Hussian Committee,

Gandhiji and -Tagore

Both Gandhiji and Rabindranath Tagore were idealists and spiritualists; and believed in 'learning by doing'. To them, education is not confined to books alone. Both practised their views through their respective institutions-in Wardha, and at Shantiniketan. The interesting contrast between them is that while Tagore Was an artist-educationist, Gandhiji was a politician-educationist; Tagore, an aesthetic philosopher and Gandhiji a religious- philosopher.

MAHATMA GANDHI

Brief life-sketch

For all Indians, the name of Gandhi is the most familiar.  He is the great Apostle of freedom and Non-violence, the artitect of India’s freedom.  He is respected as the Father of the Nation.  He was born in 1869.  His father was the Prime Minister of the states of Porbandar and Rajkat.  After his Matriculation, he studied for Law in England.  After passing his law examination, he joined the Bar in 1891.  He had to go to South Africa as a lawyer but stayed there till 1914 devoting himself to public work.  From 1919 to 1947 he actively led the Freedom Movement and died in 1948 in one of his prayer meetings. 

His main publications

We have many publications.  But he was more a man of action.  We find the following among many, “My Experiments with Truth”, “Autobiography”, commentary on the Bagavat Gita.  He was editing a number of journals like “Young India”, “Harijan”.  There are many books written on Gandhi by other leaders – both political and literary in India and other countries.  Gandhi is known more by his life than by merely his books.

His philosophy of life

Gandhi cannot be called a philosopher since he did not believe, in speculative literary approach.  He was more a man of action.  His religion or philosophy can be put in a nutshell (1) his absolute Faith in God  (2) His personal surrender to his will, (3) his belief in the brotherhood not only of all human beings but of all living beings, (4) his spirit of renunciation and (5) his ideal of continual service to his fellow creatures.  God is not a more abstract idea to Gandhiji.  For him, God is Truth; God is love.  God is ethics and moralities.  God is fearlessness.  God is source of light and life,  “There is no such thing as Gandhism and I do not want to leave any sect for me.  I do not claim to have originated any new principle or doctrine.  I have simply tried in my own way to apply eternal truths to out daily life, and problem.

Gandhiji was anxious to establish a spiritual society based on love, non-violence, truth, justice and equitable distribution of wealth.  He aimed at a co-operative self sufficient community with harmoniously developed individuals.  A balanced society with balanced individuals was aimed at in his social philosophy.

His educational philosophy

It may be said that Gandhiji was at one and the same time an idealist, a naturalist, a pragmatist and a humanist.  He believed in the development of whole personality of the individual.  “By education, I mean an all-round drawing out of the best in the child and man-body, mind and spirit.  Literacy is not the end of education, not even the beginning.  It is only one of the means whereby men and women can be educated, literacy itself is no education”.  Gandhiji’s ideal of education can be summed up in his own words, “self-realisation is the goal of life and education.  Development of the moral character, development of the whole man-all were directed towards the realization of the ultimate reality-that the finite begins into the infinite”.

His educational scheme

Gandhiji did not remain with expounding his philosophy of education.  In fact, he experimented with his principles at Sabarmathi and also at Wardha.  As a result of experimentation for 7 years he gave the name “Basic National Education-Scheme”, to his Wardha Scheme.  According to him, Basic National Education is much more than mere teaching in school.  It is a philosophy for rehabilitating the people of village in India.  Education should emanate from villages only and should not be a mere superficial surface level education for the urban people.  Education should percolate to the masses through mother tongue and a right process.  His scheme of education for the village consists of the five limbs.  (1)  Pre Basic School for children between 5 to 7  (2)  Basic School for children between 7 and 14 (3) Post-Basic school for pupils from 14 to 17 (4) Adult Education for social workers and teachers in villages.  All these must be organically related for providing a well balanced society with well-balanced individuals.  The Sarvodaya ideal of a self sufficient co-operative community, where there is no distinction between the haves and have nots was his ambition.

The Basic school is a special type of school which has the following characteristics (1) life-centred activities especially through crafts (2) correlation with a central craft activity (3) Freedom for the teacher for experimentation and innovation, (4) Education through productive activity (5) Dignity of manual labour (6) Education for democratic citizenship through social and group activities.

Since we are primarily concerned with Gandhi as a philosopher, there is no necessity for a detailed description of the Basic School.  The basic curriculum included (1) Basic craft (2) Mother-tongue (3) Arithmetic (4) social studies (5) General sciences (6) Art and music (7) Domestic science for girls.

Critical estimate

This in brief is his influence on educational practices and no wonder Gandhiji’s system of education has been influencing even today in our schemes of education through work experience, community work and social service in the villages.  Even though Gandhiji’s economic theory has not found favour with modern India.  Planners of education have been gearing to industrial – based man-power needs, his main outlook on work and service.  People today remember him for all that he said and did since he spoke what he did and did what he spoke.  His ‘Satyagraha’ pr clinging to truth’, and his ‘love for all’ have been the guiding principles in reforming our education system.  To sum up idealistic in its aim and pragmatic in its method and programme of work.  All these fuse into a unity giving rise to a theory of education, which would suit the needs of the day and satisfy the aspiration of human soul”.

Swami Vivekananda

Biography

Swami Vivekananda was born in an orthodox family, in Bengal, on the Twelfth of January 1863. Narendranath, as he was named by his parents, was a naughty child, subject to fits of restlessness during which he was beyond control. He was a gay youth taking part in many kinds of activities like boxing, wrestling, swimming and riding, at the same time he was very eager for all kinds of knowledge. He was an earnest student of philosophy and poetry. He studied all systems of Western philosophy and became very well acquainted with Herbert Spencer and John Stuart Mill. Wordsworth and Shelly were his favourite poets. As a student, Narendranath Dutta was very well known and popular with the students and the teachers, alike for his genius and extraordinary talents. Narendra's association with Sri Rama Krishna Paramahamsa brought a change not only in him, but it began a new chapter in the history of Hinduism.

Swami Vivekananda broadcasted the truths of Vedanta in India, Europe and America. He demonstrated to the world that the great Indian spiritual tradition was still alive and vigorous. He showed by precept and by example that if the ancient Vedanta were reinterpreted in the light of Sri Ramakrishna's spiritual experiences and applied to modern life. India would rise again to deliver a message to humanity. He asked his countrymen to put those truths into practice while he has explaining the philosophy of Vedanta to the public in America and later in Europe. Vivekananda taught theoretical Vedanta in the West and practical Vedanta in India. He declared the most practical form of Vedanta was the uplift of masses. He was not a politician, but he wanted to make the Indian mass strong and self-reliant. He was not a professional teacher, but observed that "education alone made the people in the West comfortable, there was brought to my mind the state of our own poor people, and I used to shed tears. What made the difference? Education was the answer I got".

To Swami Vivekananda, an ideal society should combine the spiritual culture of India and the secular culture of America and England. According to him, the strength was the crying need of the hour. He was never tired of asserting that India needs strength giving religion and a man-making education. Vivekananda's association with Ramakrishna Paramhamsa resulted in his becoming a 'wandering monk' after the death of his master. After wandering throughout the country and a few parts of the world, Vivekananda established a monastic order called the Ramakrishna Mission and thus began the educational activities of this philosopher. The Ramakrishna Mission today has more than hundred and twenty five centres all over the world. Swamiji's activities as a 'sanyasee' brought his end a little too soon. He died at a very a tender age of just 39 years on July 4th, 1902.

His Philosophy of Life

Vivekananda was a true Vedantist. He regarded Vedanta as eternal and believed in Advaita (monotheism) and Dwaita (dualism) concept. According to Swamiji, God is all powerful and without attributes (personal qualities). He saw God in three forms, viz., Being (sat), Awareness (chit) and Bliss (Ananda). He believes that the force of God prevails in all things of this universe. He emphasises the universalness of soul and brotherhood.

Vivekananda's faith in man is tremendous. He believed that man is the highest creation of God. He believed that religion is progressive. The purpose of life is to experience God within one's own self. Once he does that he begins to experience himself in all other creatures. Then he applies himself to the service of each and every living being. The philosophy of life of Swami Vivekananda is based on universal oneness and spiritual brotherhood. Vivekananda believed that perfection is inherent in man, which ought to be manifested. Service to man is the greatest worship of God.

His Concept of Education

Swamiji educational philosophy emanated from his philosophy of eternal values and eternal religion. In the true idealistic spirit, he considered the highest goal of human life to be unfoldment of the divinity within. Vivekananda believed every soul to be divine, education has to manifest this divinity by controlling nature, external and internal. For Vivekananda, knowledge, alone is not the only factor for individual good; physical strength, moral strength and character are equally important to any system of education. Education according to Vivekananda is acquiring knowledge formation of character and development of social traits.

Swamiji's Principles of Education

Like Rabindranath Tagore, Vivekananda also prescribed the same ancient spiritual methods of teaching, where Guru and his disciples lived in close association as in a family.

The following are the basic principles of education.

(i) Education is not only for getting information; rather it should develop character, mental powers, intelligence and inculcate self-confidence together with self-reliance.

(ii) Education should develop the child physically, mentally and spiritually.

(iii) While giving educational qualification, the technical education was necessary for the industrial growth which would lead to the economic prosperity of the nation.

(iv) Practicing of Brahmacharya is very essential for getting knowledge. The concentration is the key to all the knowledge.

(v) Religious education should be imparted through sweet impressions and fine conduct in preference to books.

(vi) Education should be foster spiritual faith, devotion and self-surrender in the individual and full development through service and sacrifice.

(vii) Education should develop character, mental powers, intelligence and inculcate self-confidence together with self-reliance.

(viii) All the subjects must be included in the curriculum which promotes the material and spiritual advancement of a child.

Aims

1. Reaching Perfection

The prime aim of education is to achieve fullness of perfection already present in a child. According to Swamiji all material and spiritual knowledge is already present in man covered by a curtain of ignorance. Education should tear off that veil so that the knowledge shines forth as an illuminating torch to enliven all the corners by and by. This is meant by achieving fullness of the latent perfection.

2. Physical and Mental Development

The second aim of education is the physical and mental development of the child so that the child of today, after studying the Gita, is able to promote national growth and advancement as a fearless and physically well developed citizen of tomorrow. Stressing the mental development of the child, Swamiji, wished education to enable the child to stand on his own legs economically rather than becoming a parasite on others.

3. Moral and Spiritual Development According to Swami Vivekananda, a nation's greatness is not only measured by its parliamentary institutions and activities, but also by the greatness of its citizens. But the greatness of citizens is possible only through their moral and spiritual development which education must foster.

4. Character Development According to Swamiji, character development is a very important aim of any education. For this, he emphasised the practice of Brahmacharya which fosters development of mental, moral and spiritual powers leading to purity of thoughts, words and deeds.

5. Shraddha and Spirit of Renunciation All through his life Swamiji exhorted the individuals to keep full confidence upon their powers. They should inculcate a spirit of self surrender, sacrifice and renunciation of material pleasures for the good of others. Education should bring in, all these qualities in the individual. He gave this call to his countrymen. "Arise, awake and stop not till the goal is achieved."

6. Unity in Diversity The true aim of education is to develop an insight into the individuals so that they are able to search out and realise unity in diversity. Swami Vivekananda has further asserted that physical and spiritual worlds are one; their distinctness is an illusion (Maya). Education should develop this sense which finds unity in diversity.

 7. Religious Development To Swamiji, religious development is an essential aim of education. To him, each individual should be able to search out and develop the religious seed embedded in him and thus find the absolute truth or reality. He hence, advocated the training of feelings and emotions so that the whole life is purified and sublimated. Then only, the capacities of obedience, social service and submission to the teachings and preaching's of great saints and saviours will develop in the individual. Education should foster this development.

His Aims of Education

About the aims of education Swamiji has summed up his ideas in one sentence. "The end of all education, all training should be man-making". He recommended several aims of education.

Faith in One's Own Self

This is first step towards advancement and the first prerequisite to attain education and perfection. The main function of education is to make a person conscious of his latent powers. This will lead him to a life is sublime and divine Faith in One's Own Self This is first step towards advancement and the first prerequisite to attain education and perfection. The main function of education is to make a person conscious of his latent powers. This will lead him to a life is sublime and divine.

Education Must Develop Moral Character

Swamiji clearly said "Education is not the amount of information that is put into your brain and runs riot there, undigested in your life. We must have life-building, man-making, character making assimilation of ideas". All the time he spoke of formation of character through education. The beauty and glory of life lies in character-making.

Practical Side of Life

Swamiji was very much concerned with the wretched poverty of his countrymen. He was anxious to see millions of starving and poverty stricken Indians properly fed. He considered a system of education worthless, which ignores the practical side of life. By the practical of life, he means that everyone must be able to get his primary needs satisfied. Everyone must stand on his own legs. Here, he suggested the establishment of workshops and other centres to solve the problems of hunger and unemployment in the country. He equally favoured the study of western technology and engineering, for the economic prosperity.

Promotion of Universal Brotherhood

Education must promote the feeling that the Atman (soul) is the same in all—from the ant to the perfect man—the difference being only in its manifestation. He asserts that "from the highest God to the meanest grass the same power is potent in all-whether manifested or not". Education must call forth this power in every man. This spirit will certainly mean annihilation of all misery from this earth. Vivekananda stood for internationalism, unity of mankind and transformation of the world society into a compact union of hearts and souls.

Rote Learning

Swamiji was against bookish knowledge. True education is that which develops the will and enables one realise the divinity latent in him. In the words of Dr. Chaube, "education must aim at the development of infinite energy, infinite zeal, infinite courage and infinite patience in man".

Spirit of Renunciation

Swamiji has said that education must generate the spirit of renunciation in man. This renunciation means the inculcation of feeling that we should work for others and it is a great privilege to be able to do something for the world.

Immense Faith in Man

Swamiji's faith in man was immense. To him, "man is higher than all animals and angels, none is greater than man. Even the Gods will have to come down again to attain salvation through a human body". The teacher has to make the pupil conscious that he has to reach his perfection. (Complete works of swami Vivekananda, Vol. I, p. 142). With the above aims, the Swamiji has established glorious traditions of India, which formed a basis for building modern India. Place of Child

Swamiji emphasised the education to be child-centered. According to him, the child is the store and repository of all learning material and spiritual. Like a plant, a child grows by his/her own inner power naturally. Hence, advising the child to grow naturally and spontaneously, Vivekananda asserted Go into your own and get the Upanishads out of your own self. You are the greatest book that ever was or will be. Until the inner teacher opens, all outside teaching is in vain.

Place of Teacher

Swamiji believed in self-education. According to him, each of us is his own teacher. The external teacher only guides and inspires the inner teacher (soul) to rise up and start working to develop the child. Hence discussing the role of teacher Swami Vivekananda said- "Teacher is a philosopher, friend and guide helping the educand to go forward in this own way."

Education of Masses

Previously education was not available to the common people. It was confined to the well-to-do persons. The poor, the miserable and the lowly placed used to starve and die for hunger. Swamiji yearned to improve the condition of the masses and thus advocated mass education as the only way to achieve any improvement in individual as well as society.

Technical Education

Technical education should be implemented to study the independent of foreign control, different branches of knowledge with the English language and Western science. He also quoted that getting some unmarried graduates, where they may send over to Japan for technical education, so that when they come back, they may turn their knowledge to the best account of India. In Japan, we find assimilation of knowledge and not its digestion as we have here. They have taken everything from Europeans, but they remain Japanese all the same, and have not turned European; while in our country, the terrible mania of becoming Westernised has seized upon us like a plague.

Curriculum of Education

Swami Vivekananda, in his scheme of education, meticulously illustrated to include those studies, necessary for the all-around development of the body, the mind and the soul of the individual. These studies can be brought under the broad heads of physical culture, classics, language, religion, science and technology. According to Swamiji, the cultural values of the country should form an integral part of the curriculum. The culture of India has its roots in her spiritual values. The time-tested values are to be imbibed in the thoughts and lives of the students through the study of the classics like the Ramayana, the Mahabharata, the Gita, the Vedas and the Upanishads. This will keep the perennial flow of our spiritual values into the world culture. According to Swamiji, remains incomplete without the teaching of aesthetics or fine arts. He cited Japan as an example of how the combination of art and utility can make a nation great. He wanted to include technical education and all else which will develop industries. He reiterated that religion is the innermost core of education. In building up character, in making for everything that is good and great and in bringing peace to others and peace to one's own self, religion is the highest motive power, and, therefore, ought to be studied from that standpoint. Medium of Instruction

As regards to medium of instruction, Vivekananda strongly advocated for the use of mother-tongue. He a true nationalist and a champion of national education he argued instruction through mother tongue. He visualised to indianise the Indian education. He also wanted to spread spiritual education via the mother tongue so that it will reach to everyone. Although Swamiji is of the opinion that mother tongue is the right medium for spiritual education, he prescribes that learning of English and Sanskrit also, because while English is necessary for mastering western science and technology, Sanskrit leads one into the depths of our vast store of classics.

Methods of Teaching

Lecture Method: Spiritual ideas are abstract ideas. It becomes difficult on the part of a child to understand spiritual doctrines. So, Swamiji advocated for the introduction of lecture method to explain the spiritual ideas in a simple way to the students.

Activity Method: Swamiji accepted learning through activities as an ideal method of teaching. It can provide direct experience to the children. He advocated that activities like singing, storytelling, drama and dancing should be performed by the students in the spirit of Ramayana and Mahabharata. He also advocated for the introduction of other activities like excursion, camps, etc., to help the students to understand the value of social service. He also advocated questioning and answering and Deductive and Inductive method in his educational system.

RABINDRANATH TAGORE'S SHANTHINI-KETAN AND VISWA BHARATHI

Rabindranath Tagore, a modern Indian saint, a Noble Prize winner for poetry, a philosopher of eminence, a thinker of marvellous qualities and en educationist and writer of international fame, was born in Calcutta on 6th May 1861 in an aristocratic family. He was the youngest and the 14th son of his father, (Maharishi Devendra Nath Tagore. He not only put India on the world map of culture and literature, but proved to the world the values of the Indian way of life and thought.

Life Sketch and Early Education

Tagore was a gifted child. He hailed from a family believing in the principle of simple living and high thinking. His father particularly believed in bringing up children such that they were enabled to face hard realities of life, in future, if need be. And this attitude of austerity is reflected in Tagore's educational philosophy, Tagore said, "when children have too many ready-made toys their natural powers of imagination and invention have no chance to grow. They lose the joy of creation which is the greatest joy of play. Maharishi Devendranath Tagore himself took, charge of 9c1upation 9f his son and taught him Indian Philosophy, Upanishads, Astronomy and Sanskrit. For other studies-the young Tagore had to go to Seminary and Bengal Academy where, however, the dead routine and lifeless teaching were disliked by him. Dejected, and in revolt against the system of education, he left the school. A private tutor was tried albeit in vain. In 1877, he was sent to England to study law; but even this proved abortive.

Tagore had a deep understanding of the human nature arid cherished a taste for literature. Endowed with a deep insight into educational problems, he started in 1901 'Shantiniketan Ashram' in Belpur about 170 kms. from Calcutta which in 1921 became the world famous university known as 'Vishwa Bharathi University' concretising all his ideas on education.

Tagore was awarded Noble Prize for literature in November 1913 for his ‘Gitanjalit’. In December 1913, the Calcutta University conferred on him the honorary degree of D. Litt, and in 1915 the Government conferred on him Knighthood. After rendering meritorius service in many fields like art, literature, drama and education, he died on 7th August 1941. A widely-travelled man with fervent patriotic feelings, he renounced in 1919 the Knighthood, as a protest against the repression let loose by British imperialism in Punjab which resulted in the famous Jalianwala Bagh tragedy.

The Vishvva Bharthi University was conceived as an international University to promote understanding between eastern and western ways of life; and for a full 20 years, Tagore worked hard to add glory and renown to this remarkable institution, He was an ardent prophet of world unity,

Tagore’s Philosophy of Life

Tagore did not have any specific philosophy; and he was not a metaphysician in the strict sense of the term. But then he had abiding vision of the lofty principles which should guide man in his life, as a product of his own "childhood experiences. His educational philosophy, arising in the context of his philosophy of life, is reflected in Shantiniketan.

Tagore was essentially an Indian in spirit, with deep faith in Vedas and inheriting Brehm Samajist traditions. He was an individualist believing that in and through God, the Creator of man, we should have unity between man and nature.

He was a naturalist assigning to nature its due place in education, with emphasis on self-realisation through fulfiling one's Dharma. He was an idealist. Also, he loved in the true spiritual tradition of India, advocating spiritual harmony and salvation of soul, He was also a Realist because he sought to like education without complete life, An ardent advocate of world unity, he was known for his internationalism.

Thus, to sum up, Tagore was a bundle of many great qualities reflecting his general philosophy—individualism, naturalism, idealism, spiritualism, realism, humanism, and international outlook,

Tagore's Educational Philosophy The educational philosophy of Rabindranath Tagore may be summed up as an integration of (a) freedom, (b) creative self expression, (c) active communion with nature and man, and (d) internationalism.

(a) Freedom : He wanted children educated in a free atmosphere, in open air surroundings. He wanted freedom of mind, of heart, and of will so that it would lead' to spontaneous self-expression. And, this was possible only in a natural setting. Shantiniketan embodies this principle.

(b) Creative self-expression Tagore was against excessive intellectual domination of education. Like Gandhiji, he advocated through activities and direct experiences-Craft, music, drawing and dramatics. He stressed 'manual work' and suggested leather work, dancing and painting, Completeness in education, he believed, would be possible only when heart and hand works with head.

(c) Active communion with nature and man: Children should be brought into direct contact with nature for there is a spiritual relationship between nature and God and nature and man, anti hence between man and God. Tagore's naturalism was different from that of Rousseu's naturalism ; and was essentially based on humanism, standing for love and harmony with all that exists in nature. He said that every child is unique in his behaviour.

(d) Internationalism : Education should kindle the feeling of oneness in children. Universal love and brother-hood was his Passion and accordingly his Shantiniketan was established to promote inter-cultural and inter-social under-standing towards the ultimate unification of mankind.

Aims of Education

Tagore emphasised moral, spiritual, intellectual and physical development as the aims of education. Also, harmonious development of all human faculties, and pro-motion of international understanding were dear to him, as additional aims of education.

Physical development: Tagore disapproved excessive emphasis on intellectual development, to the neglect of physical development. Healthy body is essential for sound education ; he said.

Intellectual Development : Development of the power of thinking and power of imagination of the mind were equally stressed by Tagore. Emancipation of the intellect from inertia and dead habits should be real element in the intellectual make-up of man, he said.

Moral and spiritual development: Tagore was a great moral teacher, and stressed inner discipline, attainment of ideal of peace and tranquility and simple ways of life. His emancipation of the self was to be from moral and spiritual slavery in the struggle against blind superstition, prejudices, outmoded customs and traditions.

Harmonious development of faculties: Tagore was equally alive to the importance of sociability, and harmonious development of all human faculties as the means to attain full manhood.

International understanding : Tagore stood for internationalism, international understanding, universal Brother hood and international peace. He said, "Mankind must realise a unity, wider in range, deeper in sentiment, and stronger in power than ever before,"

Curriculum and Methods

The curriculum should be primarily creative work. He wanted science to be taught at higher levels, and history for all children. Initial education should be in one's mother tongue. Manual labour was stressed. The other subject of study t recommended by Tagore were language, literature, geography, nature study, music, art etc, He was, however, against bookish learning: He emphasised activities and occupations like dancing, dramatics, drawing, painting, handwork, excursions, gardening, music, arts, etc.

Organisation of Shantiniketan or Viswabharathi

The school, Shantiniketan Ashram established in 1901 developed into the International University; Vishwa-Bharathi in 1921. The university, now a full-fledged Central University is symbol of Tagore's passionate faith in the brotherhood of all nations. Vishwabharati was created with three main purposes, as Tagore himself explained, of teaching cultures of the East, rural reconstruction, and to promote a synthesis between East and West.

The university has three main constitutents-Shantiniketan the -University itself, and 'The Institute of Rural Reconstruction. The school, called °PATH BHAVAN° provides education from elementary to High School level. The University with a press, library, post office, hospital, and a workshop of its own provides higher education in practical manner through various institutions. The Rural Reconstruction institute provides training in cottage industries. The whole group in the Ashram, works for two hours every morning, before breakfast, and finish their class work before noon. Culture activities and teaching villagers are their afternoon schedules.

The different institutions of the University are Vidhya Bhawan, Shiksha Bhawan, Kale Bhawan, Shilpa Bhawan, Vinaya Bhawan, China Bhawan, Hindi Bhawan, and Islamic Research Section.

Rabindranath Tagore (1861 to 1941)

(a) Brief outline of life - sketch

Rabindranath Tagore is a poet, dramatist, novelist, actor, com-poser, educator, philosopher, painter and prophet. But first and foremost he is a poet. He was born in Calcutta in 1861 in a highly educated family. His father taught him Indian philosophy. Upanishads, Astronomy and Sanskrit. In 1877 he was sent to England to study 1 aw hit he came back to India. He was more attached to Bengali literature and he established Shanthiniketan in 1901. In 1913 he was awarded the Nobel prize for his `Gitanjali'. He travelled abroad and visited Europe-Japan, and United States on several occasions. He was conferred knighthood in 1915 but he renounced it. In 1921 he established "Viswabharathi" which was an international university. For full 20 years, he tried to bring glory to the institution by establishing Eastern and Western ways of life. It is surprising that, though the poet learned to write in English, rather late, he was able to achieve a style of his own with rhythmical and beautiful and extraordinary

(b) Main Publications

Main publications were more in the field of poetry and literature and he contributed a few essays on Education. One such is "My school", "Sadhana", 'Greater India', 'The gardener', 'Creative unity', `Personality', 'Fruit-gathering', 'The fugitive' are a few among them.

(c) Tagore's philosophy:

Tagore believed in the Vedas. He was of the view that God is one and he is the creator of men as well as nature. He believed that in Him and through Him we find 'unity between man and man' and `unity between man and nature'. He was an individualist in the Indian sense. He was a spiritualist since he traced everything to Brahman or God. He was naturalist since he considered child as the manifestation of Nature. He was an idealist which is Western in nature, but Indian in outlook. He was a Humanist. He believed in internationalism and expressed himself as the champion of the voice of Humanity. For international peace and world brotherhood he spoke and uttered emphatically. His love of Humanity is as great as his versatility. Love of Man is the cornerstone of his religion. He was dead against wars and condemned Western Civilization.

Philosophy of Education

His educational Philosophy flowed from his philosophy of life. This may be studied under following heads.

a) Freedom : Schools should not be factories but provide a free atmosphere for the pupils in contacting Nature and Universe.

b) Self-government should be practised in schools.

c) Self expression : Education should aim at the development of the active tendencies of the child.

d) Education should be for developing one into 'Whole Man'.

e) His philosophy is the philosophy of an artist and poet.

f) The child's mind is sensitive, alert, eager and restless to receive first—hand knowledge from Mother Nature.

g) Nature is the greatest of all educators.

h) There should be no dull routine.

i) Children react to stimulation with their whole body and mind. The attention of children should be hit by natural phenomena • sunrise, sunset, music, flowers.

j) Education should promote peace, love, kindness, and ideals and aim at freedom and sympathy with all humanity. Education should realise the essential spiritual unity of man.

His educational ideals:

The great use of education is not merely to collect facts but to know man and to make oneself known to men. These ideals sum up Tagore's educational thoughts.

1. Child must be treated as a child.

2. Child's sub-conscious mind is more active than its conscious intelligence.

3. Belief in wholeness in learning.

4. Freedom is the principle of teaching method.

5. Learning should be a joyous adventure.

6. Human element is important.

7. Poetry should be taught from the emotional standpoint.

8. Children's hook must be simple and attractive.

9. Value of suggestion in education is stressed.

10. All teaching should be through mother tongue.

11. Only original texts in language are to be read.

12. Lectures are to be avoided in education.

13. More stress on self- discipline.

14. Democratic healthy atmosphere of school is responsible for its smooth running.

15. There should be freedom in religious education,

He practised all his ideals in the Shanthiniketan, the Abode of peace. The curriculum included craft, music, dancing, fine arts etc. He also gave importance to the teaching of science and carrying experiments. Importance of mother tongue was recognised. There was provision, for hobbies. There was more freedom for pupils. Punishment was us administered. Shanthiniketan was like home. There were only positive requests and not negative commands. The classes were small. Problem children were treated in a special way. Co-curricular activities were given an honoured place. Manual labour was given great importance.

The concept of Higher Education is developed in his Vishwa-Bharathi an international university. He established it for establishing inter-social amity and understanding and fulfil highest mission of the present age, the unification of mankind. Following are its various units

a) Shishu Bhavan i e. a nursery school.

 b) Path Bhavan which is a higher school section and runs up to Matriculation Examination.

c) Shiksha Bhavan, which is Higher Secondary School.

d) Vidya Bhavan, the college of under graduates and post graduates studies and research.

e) Vinay Bhavan, the college of teacher's training.

f) Kala Bhavan, the college of fine arts and crafts.

g) Shri Niketan, the institute of rural re-construction.

h) Shangeet Bhavan, the college of music and dance.

i) Shiksha Satra, or high school with a rural bias.

j) Shilpha Sadan or college of industrial training. k) China Bhavan, the school of language e.g. Chinese, Tibetan etc.

Rabindra Nash Tagore struggled to implement his social ideals and strove to build up a social structure through education.

Tagore

Like Rousseau, Tagore is a naturalist. He believed that every individual should be given the freedom to develop according to his natural endowment and in his own way. According to Tagore each child is an ambassador of God. He was an internationalist but his internationalism was neither economic nor political. He had implicit faith in the fundamental unity of mankind and human brotherhood. Tagore’s philosophy of education exactly conforms to his general philosophy. He was dissatisfied with the existing system of education because it ignored our own customs, traditions, conventions manners and ideologies, Tagore believed in the education of the whole man. Tagore was not satisfied with the present academic freedom. He struck- a balance between the education of man and education of nature. He set a high value on creativity. Tagore recommended a curriculum for the full man satisfying the spiritual, the creative, the aesthetic and the vocational aims of education. He has given a message of peace and universal love of fullness of life and human loyalty so that a better and happier world could be created out of the alies of the old one.

SRI AUROBINDO-ASHRAM SCHOOL AND SRI AUROBINDO INTERNATIONAL UNIVERSITY CENTRE, PONDICHERRY

Sri Aurobindo, the patriot philosopher, was revolutionary in several respects, He was a voracious student and an excel-lent exponent of Vedic philosophy. His abiding interest in the Vedic system of education and Gurukula type of learning led to the establishment of the Ashram School in 1943. He was strongly convinced that the school setting should be in a hilly atmosphere calm and ideal. We should only recall the views of Rabindranath Tagore, in this context, which led to the establishment of the Shantiniketan Ashram in 1001 which developed into the International _University, Vishwa--bharathi in 1921. Sri Aurobindo's Ashram School was there-fore established in the midst of the beauty of Mother Nature, with trees, plants and flowers providing a salubrious surrounding for the greet process of learning in its real sense to materialise. The actual location of the school in Pondichery, with the sea lying by the side, there is an eternal music, as it wore lending lofty accompaniment to learning.

Sri Aurobindo's Philosophy of Education

According to Sri Aurobindo, education is not something to be mechanically faithful to the past, but it should be designed to develop the present and oriented to the future needs. The futuristic orientation assigned to education is Sri Aurobindo's signal contribution to the theory and practice of education.

Training in good citizenship is the basic feature of education and there is no need for any special type of education needed for the country, whether in the East or West. Man-kind's needs being the same everywhere; truth and knowledge being relevant to all the countries alike education should be a universal thing, without national barriers. People everywhere should keep abreast of all developments in truth and know-ledge; and hence our system of education should be barriers. People everywhere should- keep abreast of all development modern in spirit and universal in design, he said.

The true basic of education is the study of mind-of the infant; adolescent, and adult. A total development of the mental faculties is advocated, but at the same time the need to maintain good health is also stressed. There is the dictum "Sound mind in a Sound body".

The teacher instead of being an indispensable source of knowledge, should help the student in learning on his own. Education should serve to bring out the best in everyone, and also should work from the near to the far, from that which is to that which shall be. The past is our foundation, the present our material, and the future our aim. Each of these must have its due place in a natural system of education.

Mind is the instrument of education. All experiences lies within us a passive or potential memory. And, active memory selects and chooses what is required from the storehouse at any given time. Mind receives all sensory experiences and traces them into thought sensations, against and apperceptive canvas. Hence, training in the right use of senses is the first task the teacher should do with the child.

Sri Aurobindo found it necessary to start a school for the education of children in the Ashram and gave customary education with modifications to articulate his robust views. Emphasis on sports and athletics brought out his concern for the 'physical counsciousness’. He believed in a divine life in the material world, through a union of two ends of existence, the Spiritual and the material base.

In the Ashram, therefore, the day began with prayer and meditation. Simple nutritious food, physical exercises and games helped to maintain good body frame. Personalised teaching by dedicated teachers followed ; and the pupils were ardent learners. The best in the curriculum of the ancient Vedas was blended with the required modern ideas of unity and brotherhood.

Sri Aurobindo International University Centre, Pondicherry:

The famous centre, inaugurated on January 5, 1952, developed out of the Ashram School started by Sri Aurobindo in 1943. The Centre consists of three educational Divisions primary, secondary and higher. Students are admitted without any distinctions based on caste, race, nationality, sex or creed. Education is provided free of charge. The teaching as also the supporting administrative staff are all a dedicated band of people; and they are not formally paid any salary. The Centre provides them with lodging and other basic necessities. There are now 150 teachers 700 students, from nursery to advanced levels.

The main purpose of the University Centre is to provide for an integral education envisioned by Sri Aurobindo ; and the Centre does not compare with the existing universities. No Degrees or Diplomas are awarded. Pursuit of knowledge for the sake of knowledge is splendidly articulated in the Centre. The objects of instruction briefly stated are : to discern a unity of all knowledge and to synthesis the humanities and sciences : to provide a conductive environment for the development of the five essential aspects of human personality the physical, the vital, the mental, the psychic, and the spiritual ; and to forge a spirit of unity of mankind and international outlook.

The Centre is based on the basic conviction that education is knowledge flowering from forth with, through spontaneous revelation, end there the first principle of true teaching in that nothing can be taught. Accordingly, therefore, the Centre follows the Free Progress System where each student is to study any subject of his choice, 'to proceed at his own pace and ultimately to take charge of his own development. We may appreciate the cardinal principles of the modern approach, 'Programmed Learning' with its emphasis on self learning at one's own pace in this context.

The media of instruction are English and French. One learns one's own mother tongue and Sanskrit, and some learn one or more other languages of India or Europe. There is no religious teaching as such, for the Ashram, of which the Centre is a part, is not attached to any particular religion. All-round development of body, mind, and spirit is neatly attempted.

The atmosphere of the Ashram is discouraging to all pretence and vanity. There is no monument in stone and mortar in the name of the great founder whose name it bears. However any visitor to the Ashram will certainly discern the stirring of the spirit of the creative, integral education and the epoch-making beginnings of a great and pioneering venture.

The courses offered by the Centre are : (i) for infants starting at the age of four and lasting for three years, mainly through games and activities, (ii) Primary Classes-a four year course with French, English and the other tongue, and object lessons in elementary science, mathematics, social studies and drawing' (iii) Secondary course with subjects at higher level and a technical subject of choice like carpentry etc, (iv) the University level course of three years followed by a two-year course in higher studies with some subjects taught in French and the rest in English. (v) Technical Training courses in a wide variety of vocations like engineering, photography, painting, and so on, and (vi) Language classes for adults where several languages are taught.

JOHN DEWEY [1895-1952]

At the turn of the twentieth century, there was a perceptible shift from the traditional method of teaching towards more progressive approaches, with tenets of learners interests and freedom in learning situations forming their base. The learner was placed in the transitional stage between traditionalist and progressivism Pragmatism, as a philosophy, is an offshoot of progressivism.

Problem-solving attitude is pivotal to pragmatism. And, John Dewey, the great American philosopher of pragmatism, has given a classic formulation to the structure of the method. His advocacy has immensely influenced the current educational thinking and processes at all levels. His philosophy boiled down to life-centred education : and has given rise to an era of inquiry in education, with resultant innovations and creative approaches in different spheres and levels of education. A prominent educator, philosopher, and psychologist, Dewey was perhaps best-known as the articulate proponent of progressive education. His writings and teachings served much to shape the direction of American public education during the first half of the twentieth century, and of course, education the world over.

Life and Works

John Dewey was born in October 1859, in the city of Burlingtion in the State of Worment, in New England in the USA. After graduation he took to teaching, and developed deep liking for the career ; and his doctorate in philosophy from the University of Hopkins. He joined the Chicago University in 1894, and started the Experimental School in 1896 where he tested his educational hypotheses before recommending them. For nearly three decades, he was serving as Professor of Philosophy at Columbia University. Even after retirement, he served as Professor Emeritus until he died in 1952. He visited several countries including Japan, China, Turkey and Russia. Father of six children, he worked in and wrote on children's education. His numerous works on philosophy, psychology, ethics, political science, education and literature include some famous titles as follows : 'The School and the Society', 'the School and the Child', 'The School of Tomorrow', 'Democracy and Education', 'Education Today', 'Freedom and Culture', Interest and Effort in Education'.

Dewey's General Philosophy

Dewey's philosophy is based on evolutionary concepts of Darwin and pragmatism. Experience forms the core of his philosophy. Dewey was for testing everything including any idea hypothesis, faith or religion, by the way it worked by the consequences. He was a pragmatist to the core.

The main ingredients of his Philosophy are:

(i) Truth is that which works, which fulfils our purpose. (ii) There are no fixed values. All values change with time and space. Man's life is a series of experiments and purposeful actions.

(iii) Everything is provisional, and nothing, ultimate Knowledge is a means, and never an end in itself.

(iv) Knowledge and thinking are associated with action. Action is superior to thought; but at the same time, thought and action are complementary.

According to him truth lies in the human soul. He was against existence of supernatural powers and denounced all superstition. Human should develop according to societal requirements.

In our dynamic world, truth and values are relative, and are influenced by time and place, Truth is thus neither eternal, nor beyond human experience.

Mind and its faculties cognitive, affectives and psycho-motor are the result in mental development, in the process of man's struggle against his environment for his survival. Knowledge is acquired for self-preservation. We all seek, through experiment and action to solve our problems. Dewey was thus a great experimentalist. He advocated social good as focus of our experiments, leading to the emergence of moral values constituting the heritage of the society.

Individuality or personality is shaped both by society and nature. While the 'external' i.e., the body is formed by nature, the 'internal' i.e., thoughts and feelings are the contribution of society.

Dewey's Concept of Education

The aims of education, according to Dewey, should be (i) "to stimulate the child's powers through the social medium to live up to the social standards and demands (social efficiency)" and (ii) "to equip the individual with abilities to test the truth, values and standards through experiment". Dewey maps out individual aims and social aims of education. The 'social efficiency' concept includes 'economic efficiency', negative morality (abhorring standards inimical to social flood), and 'positive morality'.

'Learning by doing' is the method advocated by Dewey Different subjects shall be co-ordinated with the activities and life of the child. Kilpatrick, one of the famous followers of Dewey, introduced 'Project Method' of teaching, which, it Ii believed, reflects Dewey's ideas on teaching methods. In fact, Project method and problem method are advocated by Dewey with emphasis on experimental approach. Direct experience and activity method are woven around child's, interests.

The curriculum should be flexible, experience-based, and utility determined, he says. The only reality, according to hi is one's own experience of objects, physical and social surroundings around him. He defines education as "development of all these capacities in the individual which will enable him to control his environment, and fulfil his possibilities. "What nutrition and reproduction are to physiological life, education is to social",

Dewey reacted against the authoritarian teaching methods of the nineteenth century. He advocated a practical curriculum. His influence is soon widespread in the Western schools.

Dewey was an original thinker, after Plato. He was the originator of the concept of experimental schools, He was it practical educational philosopher. He had progressive outlook on education, advocating life-centred curriculum and project method.

The basis of his pragmatism, however, is severely criticized. The over-emphasis of human purpose in the context of our life to the neglect of eternal values of life is questioned by the critics. Eben Dewey, it is said as early as in 1930, admitted the errors of his thinking ; and his subsequent writings showed shifts towards idealism.

John Dewey (1859 - 1952)

(a) A Brief life sketch

John Dewey was born in October 1859 in the city of Burling-on in the state of Warmont. His father was an ordinary business-man and so he had to pass his childhood in a village school. In 1879, he finished his graduate studies and became a teacher. He got Ph.D. in philosophy from the University of Hopkins. Then he was on the staff of the University of Michigen and Chicago and later on in 1904 he was appointed Professor of Philosophy at Columbia university where he continued to work till 1930 Even after retirement he maintained his contacts with that university and died in 1952. He taught educational Philosophy for two years in Peking and Tokyo universities. In Turkey he tried to reorganise the schools. He used to experiment on educational problems by instituting experimental schools.

b) Main Publication

He had a lot of publications on Philosophy, Psychology, Ethics, science and Education. The following are a few of them.

(1) The School and Society.

(2) The School and the Child.

(3) School of Tomorrow.

(4) Democracy and Education.  

(5) How we think

(6) Moral Principles of Education.

 (7) Education today

(8) Freedom and Culture

(9) Reconstruction of Philosophy

(10) Interest, Effort in Education

c) His philosophy

Pragmatism in education is his main Contribution. He called himself an Experimentalist. Dewey was influenced by the philosophy of Hegel in his early days and Wiliam James in his later days. His philosophy is a combination of Darwin's theory of Evolution and William James' theory of pragmatism. So experience has become the core of his philosophy. Practical side of life is more relevant here. He speaks about truth as a force which fulfils the purposes of life. These purposes determine the actions and such actions are direct d devised by values. Values change along with the changing needs society. Thinking is related to action. This is a philosophy of Instrumentalism and Experimentalism. He advocates that ideas are the tools and instruments for solving the human problem and such ideas; to be tested and experimented before they are accepted.

This has laid the foundation for the experimental method of Education. Hs believed in proper social environment for developing human persona lily. This in brief is his philosophy. You will do well to read more in a text book on Educational philosophy. Moreover we have devoted more pages for the philosophy of pragmatism wherein you find Dewey's views, very often quoted and summed up.

d) Dewey's Conception of education According to Dewey, education aims at the "Development of all those capacities in the individual which will enable him to control his environment and fulfil his faculties. He opened a progressive school in Chicago to experiment his views. Education is essential to life. The school should be life and not a preparation to life. The two elements in education are psychological and social. The innate tendencies of the child are to be developed no doubt. But all education proceeds by the participation of the individual in the social consciousness of the race" and education is the process involving continuous reconstruction and reorganisation of experience.

e) The influence of Dewey in educational practices

1) Requirements of good Education (a) The initiative should be with the children. (b) Children should be allowed to build certain attitudes. (c) Learning that is necessary only for activity should be allowed. (d) Such learning should be properly guided.

2) Curriculum

It should be flexible based on experience subjects should be organised according to utility and curriculum should be determined according to instincts and natural capacity.

3) Methods There are 5 steps for methods of teaching (i) Activity, (ii) Problem, (iii) Data, (iv) Hypothesis, v) Testing. The project method is emphasised.

4) Teacher's Role The teacher is to be a friend and a guide to the child. He is not to transmit any information or knowledge to his pupils but he has only to arrange the situation and opportunities which may enable them to learn.

(5)Discipline : Social discipline is stressed. The school should to create a social atmosphere. The main purpose of discipline is tin, cultivation in the pupils social attitudes, social habits and ideals of co-operative conduct through the conjoint activities in the school. School is a society in miniature and social efficiency is the basic aim of education.

To sum up, Dewey’s main contribution to education are

(a) Emphasis on the relation between the school, community and education with realities of life.

(b) Stress on social aspects of Education.

(c) Stress on experiments and experiences in the curriculum.

(d) Emphasis on psychological and social aspect of Education.

(e) Project Method.

(f) Emphasis in critical thinking.

(f) Critical estimate

Rusk says : "In education we cannot but be grateful to Dewey ate : for his great services in challenging the cold storage of ideal of knowledge and bringing education more in accord with the actualities of present day life and placing the general principle that both philosophy and education should reflect the main currents of contemporary thought". Prof. Dewey has offered a corrective to otherwise idealistic, too other-worldly approaches to education with goals. Education was made purposive with tentative goals. The democratic process was chosen as the means. Much of Research in education that we have developed later owes a lot to prof. Dewey.

John Dewey

Dewey's philosophy represents a happy blending of Naturalism John Dewey and Idealism because it is based on the evolutionary concepts of Darwin and pragmatism of James. For Dewey there are no eternal and absolute values. Knowledge is always a means not an end. It is purely instrumental. Hence Dewey's Philosophy is also known as instrumentalism. Dewey's curriculum is not a mere scheme of studies. Dewey does not recommend any ready-made curriculum. Rousseau glorified the individual at the cost of society. This was not a balanced approach. Dewey fused both the psychological and sociological aspects of education. Another great contribution of John Dewey is democracy in education. In education we are grateful to John Dewey for his great service in challenging the old static method and in bringing into education the actualities of present life. His project method is the practical outcome of his philosophy. It is based on learning by doing and experiencing. According to John Dewey it is the school which can contribute a lot to promote experimental thinking and democratic co-operations. His watch word "progress more and more progress : group and group, nation and nation".

A comparative study

In this concluding section, an attempt is made to compare the philosophers in a very brief way to point out the similarities and differences between them.

Prof. Dewey and Gandhi agreed on the necessity for education based on the democratic philosophy.  Both pleaded for a community-centred education.  The school should be a miniature community according to them.  Dewey pleaded for progressive education based on life centred curriculum.  For him, education is life.  For Gandhi, the school should be a training ground in democratic citizenship.  Gandhi took the village as a unit and developed his scheme more from that point of view.  The craft-centred education is the answer given by Gandhi.  The role of the teacher as a friend, philosopher and guide is stressed by both of them.  It is interesting to find a similarity in the scheme of Prof. Dewey who was out and out an educational professor and philosopher with the scheme of Gandhi who was more a political leader and social reformer.  Gandhiji was interested more in using education as an instrument for social economic development whereas Dewey used it for more democratic purpose.

Gandhi and Tagore are national leaders.  Both of them had an innate love for the Indian tradition and values.  Both are experimental in their approach.  But Tagore is essentially a poet and Gandhi, a political leader and a lawyer.  Tagore was more aesthetic in his approach, whereas Gandhi was more economic and practical in his approach.  The art was emphasized by Tagore and the craft by Gandhi.  The Shanti Niketan is the abode of peace and the basic school is a work school.  Gandhi’s concept of the school as a self-sufficient unit is more an economic approach than educational.  The humanistic trend is more evident in Tagore’s system with an international outlook.

Prof. Dewey and Gandhi agreed on the necessity for education based on the democratic philosophy. Both pleaded for a community-centred education. The school should be a miniature community according to them. Dewey pleaded for progressive education based on life centred curriculum. For him, education is life. For Gandhi, the school should be a training ground in democratic citizenship. Gandhi took the village as a unit and developed his scheme more from tits t point of view. The craft - centred education is the answer given by Gandhi. The role of the teacher as a friend, philosopher and guide, is stressed by both of theme It is interesting to find a similarity in the scheme of Prof. Dewey who was out and out an educational professor and philosopher with the scheme of Gandhi nter whoested was more a political leader and social reformer. Gandiji was interested more in using education as an instrument for social and economic development whereas Dewey used it for more democratic purposes.